Conclusion

The percentage of Great Lakes vessels built in 1942 and ’43 which suffered fractures during the war and into the decades beyond is stunning. However, the repairs made to the AA Class Enders M. Voorhees afforded her several decades of hauling cargo before being sent to the scrapyards in 1987. Fortunately, many other ships of the AA and Maritime Classes were also usefully repaired and lasted into the 1980s and ’90s before being scrapped.

During the war, however, fractures of Lakers and Liberty ships cost time and money to repair, and in some cases, also cost the lives of Liberty ship crew members. The studies which were conducted led to better design that would lower the probability of fracture for ships still on the building ways. Early on, the mystery of welded ship fractures was attributed to myriad sources. However, all contributing factors would eventually be linked to the finding that the steel itself was likely to succumb to brittle fracture; in association with the other variables including welding, this became a terrible combination. The wide array of factors — welding, stresses,  design, weather, errors in operation or loading, and steel itself — destined investigators to spend valuable time trying to understand what was happening. Nonetheless, considerable insight was gained in the process.

A few Liberty ships remain on the water as museums today, and on the Lakes, a couple of Maritime Class vessels, along with a single vessel of the AA Class, are still hauling cargos between ports as they traverse the five Great Lakes. These welded Great Lakes ships were a part of the trial run in the process of building cargo vessels more quickly. In the words of knowledgeable investigators who spent years looking into the problem of deck failures, “It is safe to say that without welding it would have been impossible to build, in such a short time, the enormous fleet of ships which played such a vital part in winning the war.”70 The art of welded steel shipbuilding benefited greatly from the extensive investigations undertaken after deck fracturing began during the Second World War.

References

Acker, Harold G. “Highlights of Welded Ship Research,” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions; Vol. 57, 1949.

“Annual Report; Great Lakes Protective Association,” Cadillac Press; Cleveland Ohio, 1942. “Annual Report; Great Lakes Protective Association,” Cadillac Press; Cleveland Ohio, 1943. Baker, Elijah, III. “Introduction to Steel Ship Building,” Second Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company; 1953.

Bibber, Leon C. “A Study of the Tensile Properties of Heavy Longitudinally Welded Plate Specimens Simulating Deck and Shell Joints,” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions; Vol. 52; 1944.

Comstock, John P., Ed. “Principles of Naval Architecture,“ The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York, 1967.

Dempewolff, Richard F. “America Bids for the Atlantic Blue Ribbon,” (Popular Mechanics, Jun. 1952.)

Elphick, Peter. “Liberty; The Ships that Won the War,” Naval Institute Press; Maryland, 2001.

“Final Report of a Board of Investigation Convened by Order of the Secretary of the Navy to Inquire into the Design and Methods of Construction of Welded Steel Merchant Vessels,” United States. Jul. 15, 1946, Washington; Government Printing Office.  https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015018440183

Haliday, George and W. E. Swanson. “Ship Repair and Alteration,” Cornell Maritime Press; 1942.

Jonassen, Finn. “A Summary of the Research Work Conducted Under the Direction of the Ship Structure Committee,” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions; Vol. 57, 1949.

Kennedy, H. E. “Notes on Welding and Welding Stresses,” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions; Vol. 53, 1945.

La Dage, John, H. “Modern Ships,” Cornell Maritime Press; Maryland, 1953.

Meier, Skip and Wayne Garrett, Ed. “The Great Lakes Engineering Works; The Shipyard and Its Vessels,” The Marine Historical Society of Detroit; 2008.

Mosberg, R. J. “SSC-122, Final Report of Project SR-134 to the Structure Committee on Behavior of Riveted and Welded Crack Arrestors,” National Academy of Sciences- National Research Council; Washington D. C.; Aug. 31, 1960. ship structure.org/pdf/122.pdf

“Navy Board Backs Welding Of Ships,“ Special to the New York Times. New York Times.  Jun. 17, 1944.

“Structural Failures of Welded Ships,” American Bureau of Shipping, Feb. 8, 1944, Sykes, Wilfred (1949), ship file. Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin- Superior.“The Bulletin,” Lake Carriers’ Association. Vol. 39, No. 4; Aug. 1950.

Thompson, Peter. “How Much Did the Liberty Builders Learn? New Evidence for an Old Case Study,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 109, No. 1 (Feb. 2001). University of Chicago Press.

Tipper, C. F. “The Brittle Fracture Story,” Cambridge University Press; Great Britain, 1962. Williams, E. B. “Great Lakes Freighters Gradually Turn to Welding,“ Ohio State Engineer, Vol. 22, No, 6; May 1939.

Williams, E. B., Kent C. Thornton, W. R. Douglas and Paul Miedlich. “Design and Construction of Great Lakes Bulk Freighter ‘Wilfred Sykes,’” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions; Vol. 58; 1950.

Unquoted but Noteworthy:

Baier, L. A. “The Great Lakes Bulk Cargo Carrier,” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions; Vol. 55; 1947.

D’Arcangelo, Amelio M. “A Guide to Sound Ship Structures,“ Cornell Maritime Press; Maryland, 1964.

“Interim Report of a Board of Investigation Convened by Order of the Secretary of the Navy to Inquire into the Design and Methods of Construction of Welded Steel Merchant Vessels,” Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, United States Coast Guard; Vol. 1, No. 7, Jul. 1944.

“List of Ship Structure Committee Reports,” Ship Structure Committee. 1946-current. Website.  http://shipstructure.org/list_reports.shtml

Swanson, W. E. “Modern Shipfitter’s Handbook,” Second Edition. Cornell Maritime Press; New York, 1941.

Vasta, John. “Structural Tests on the Liberty Ship S. S. Philip Schuyler,” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions; Vol. 55; 1947.

Wright, Captain E. A., U.S.N., Finn Jonassen, and H. G. Acker. “Research under the Ship Structure Committee,” The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Trans- actions; Vol. 60, 1952.

Interviews:

Bonow, Eric, interviewed by the author on Nov. 15, 2016. Leindecker, John, interviewed by the author on Jul. 7, 2016. Sharrow, James, P. E., interviewed by the author on Aug. 10, 2016.

Relevant Inventions:

MacCutcheon, Edward M. Jr., Smith Sidney K., Windenburg, Dwight F. “Methods and Means for Arresting the Cracking of the Plates of Welded Ships,” Patent 2460893A. Filed May 3, 1945. http://www.google.com/patents/US2460893

Meier, Gustav W. “Process of Reducing Locked In Stresses in Transversely Welded Ships Caused By Sun Heat,” Patent 2465251A. Filed Nov. 11, 1944. http://www.google.com/ patents/US2465251

Pamphilis, George. “Welded Ship,” Patent 2393653A. Filed Aug. 9, 1944. http://www. google.com/patents/US2393653

Technical Drawings, Photographs and Film:

“[America Reports on Aid to Allies],” 1942, film. United News. https://archive.org/details/ gov.archives.arc.38937

American Ship Building Company, “Repairs to S.S. A. H. Ferbert Due to Spar Deck Frac- ture,” Oct. 15, 1953, technical drawing. Ferbert, A. H. (1942), ship file. Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Fraser Shipyards Incorporated, “Tunnel Crack Repairs, Port Side Only,” Dec. 2 1977, tech- nical drawing for Str. Robert C. Stanley. Identifier S fraser.d.188d. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “[Drawing of fractures on deck and side of hull, likely

Robert C. Stanley fracture (cropped)],” n.d., technical drawing. Voorhees, Enders M. (1942), ship file. Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Midship Section,” [Oct. 12, 1941], technical drawing for Maritime Class vessels. Identifier fra06676. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Sheer Strake and Gunwale Bar Elevation and Details Part 1,” Apr. 3, 1943, technical drawing for Maritime Class vessels. Identifier fra06672. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Sheer Strake and Gunwale Bar Elevation and Details Part 2,” Apr. 3, 1943, technical drawing for Maritime Class vessels. Identifier fra06673. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Showing Crack on “L” Strake Thru Plate Fender,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. Leon Fraser. Identifier fra06477. Fraser Shipyards Col- lection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Crack in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer on Starboard Side Only for Hull 289,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06475. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Crack in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer on Starboard Side Only,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06481. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Crack in Spar Deck Stringer, Port Side Only,” Jan. 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06484. Fraser Ship- yards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer on Starboard Side Only,” Jan. 30, 1942, technical drawing for Str. Leon Fraser. Identifier fra06471. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer for Hull 287,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. Leon Fraser. Identifier fra06473. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer Port Side Only for Hull 288,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. Enders M. Voorhees. Identifier fra06476. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer on Port Side Only,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. Enders M. Voorhees. Iden- tifier fra06480. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer, Starboard Side Only for Hull 288,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. Enders M. Voorhees. Identifier fra06472. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin- Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer, Port Side Only,” Apr. 18, 1942, technical drawing for Str. Enders M. Voorhees. Identi- fier fra06482. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer on Port Side Only,” Jan. 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06485. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer, Port Side,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06478. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer Starboard Side Only for Hull 289,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06474. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer on Starboard Side Only,” Apr. 1, 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06479. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

Great Lakes Engineering Works, “Weather Cracks in Sheer Strake and Spar Deck Stringer, Port Side Only,” Apr. 18, 1942, technical drawing for Str. A. H. Ferbert. Identifier fra06483. Fraser Shipyards Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

“[Invoice for sheer strake and gunwale bar],” Sept. 1, 1943. Ferbert, A. H. (1942), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.   

“[Photograph of fracture on deck of Str. A. H. Ferbert],” Oct. 7, 1953. Ferbert, A. H. (1942), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

“[Photograph of J. H. Hillman, Jr. at dock (cropped)],” n.d., Hillman Jr., J. H. (1943), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

“[Photograph of short straps on deck],” May 1963, Olds, Irving S. (1942), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior. 

“[Photograph showing slogan painted near pilothouse],” 1999, Sykes, Wilfred (1949), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior. 

“[Photograph, labeled 13984-7],” n.d., Stanley, Robert C. (1943), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior. 

“[Photographs of fracture on deck and sides of hull],” n.d., Voorhees, Enders M. (1942), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

“[Photographs of fracture],” Jan. 28, 1963, Stanley, Robert C. (1943), ship file.  Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

“[Red pencil sketches of fracture, labeled “Sloan”],” n.d., technical drawing. Voorhees, Enders M. (1942), ship file. Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

“[Sketch of fracture, labeled SDS-21],” n.d., technical drawing. Voorhees, Enders M. (1942), ship file. Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

“Str. Enders M. Voorhees Port Side Fractures,” n.d., technical drawing. Voorhees, Enders M. (1942), ship file. Lake Superior Maritime Collection, University of Wisconsin-Superior.